2020, Vol., No.27

불교학리뷰 2023 KCI Impact Factor : 0.5

pISSN : 1975-2660
https://journal.kci.go.kr/crbs

Using major early Mahāyāna texts and the Āgamas/Nikāyas, this research demonstrates that in its earliest form, the so-called “buddhas in the ten directions” are actually transformation buddhas of the Śākyamuni Buddha, or duplicates of the Buddha in the infinite worlds. The research shows that the concept had its origins in the similes comparing the Buddha to the sun and the moon as well as the Twin Miracle Legend, both of whichare found in the Northern Āgamas and the Pāli texts. The research further shows that Buddha Akṣobhya is a transformation buddha; while Amitābha represents a metamorphosis of the concept of “transformation buddha” from being a duplicate of the Śākyamuni Buddha to a supposedly real celestial buddha in another world system. As such, the devotionalism toward Amitābha was a result of syncretism of early Mahāyāna and the Indo-Iranian religions at the northwestern frontier of Indian Buddhism’s sphere of influence. It is the culturally constructed Buddhism instead of the early classical Mahāyāna that is based on the Six-Pāramitās. Lastly, the research argues that early Mahāyāna Buddhists promoted the concept of “buddhas in the ten directions” to preach to the laity, as is consistently evidenced by the early Buddhist texts and the early Mahāyāna texts. Based on the analysis, the research argues that the early Mahāyāna Buddhists were devoted only to the Śākyamuni Buddha, and it is a myth that they truly believed that there were real buddhas in the ten directions.

This paper mainly focuses on the issue of the reality of the world and the way in which the reality of the world is demonstrated. The usage of languages is never confined within the sphere of everyday life or phenomenal world. Buddhist teachings, especially the Prajñāpāramitā-sūtras, use whatever language to demonstrate and elucidate the ineffable reality of the world. For example, space is invariably declared as empty and such technical terms with negative prefixes as not-arising (an-utpāda) and not-ceasing (a-nirodha) are adopted to express the meaning of space. Whatever terminology may be used to point to the reality, but the reality cannot be identified as or contained in conventional construction. Concerning the gap revealed by the ineffability of the reality, i.e., what is left by the insufficiency and inadequacy of discourses, meditative practices and insightful wisdom may take over to fill up.

I have confirmed that the Pusajie-yishu (菩薩戒義疏) by Zhiyi (智顗, 538- 597) is indeed the oldest of the Commentaries on Fanwang-jing (Brahmāʼs Net Sutra, 梵網經). Zhiyi uses a unique structure of the Essence of Precepts (戒體), called ‘The Non-apparent Form of a sacred Non-indicative Form’, in the Yishu, which is different from the one shown in his previous books. The Essence of Precepts, in the Yishu, has a unique structure in which its presence or absence is determined according to Two Teachings, namely Expedient and True (權實二敎). The Yishu does not recognize the existence of the Essence of Precepts as the True Teaching, but instead considers it to be the Expedient Teaching. In other words, although the Mental Dharma (心法) represents the Essence of Precepts as the True Teaching, the Essence of Precepts is actually a structure that uses the Form Dharma (色法) as the Expedient Teaching for distributing the Fanwang-jing. And this is a temporary Form Dharma that is different from the Form Dharma of the Lesser Vehicle (小乘). This means that to find the Buddha-nature (佛性) of the Mental Dharma, and attain the Essence of Precepts of the Marvelous Contemplation of the Middle Way, can only be accomplished through ascetic practices.