KJCKorea
Journal Central

This paper revisits the meaning of “也孫 也速惕” (yisün yisüt) in Section 267 of The Secret History of the Mongols, offering a new interpretation along with supporting evidence. The term refers to the number of tribute items offered by Iluqu Burqan, ruler of Western Xia, to Činggis Qan (Genghis Khan) following the fall of his kingdom. Although most annotated editions translate yisün yisüt as “nine each” or “九九” (nine-nine), they rarely explain the reasoning behind this choice. One influential interpretation, proposed by Naka Michiyo (那珂通世), suggests that the term refers to gifts exchanged in sets of nine, or “nine each,” drawing on historical records of Khitan and Mongol practices. However, a closer look at the grammar challenges this view: in Mongolic languages, distributive numerals like “nine each” would require the form yisüged, not yisüt, since the suffix ~γad/ged must be attached to cardinal or base numbers. This grammatical point, together with cultural evidence, points toward an alternative interpretation. In Mongol tradition, the number nine carries a meaning of abundance and maximal extension, a symbolism that becomes even stronger when nine is multiplied by itself. Shamanistic rituals, historical records, and even legal codes all show examples of this symbolic use of repeated nines. Building on these examples, this study supports the interpretation of yisün yisüt as denoting “9x9,” which would best be understood as representing “81.”

This article examines cases of intermarriage involving Joseon government intervention and analyzes government perceptions and northern frontier conditions at the time when regulations governing Jurchen marriage partners and their marital eligibilities were established. Following the founding of Joseon, intermarriage between Jurchens and Koreans occurred frequently in the northern regions due to geographic proximity. During King Sejong’s reign in particular, the Joseon government not only permitted such marriages but at times encouraged intermarriage among naturalized Jurchens. Externally, these unions served to justify Joseon’s juridical claims over the Jurchens, while internally, they fostered human networks that promoted the settlement of Jurchens within Joseon territory. The enactment of intermarriage regulations was closely tied to Joseon’s broader efforts to manage the northern frontier, an undertaking actively advanced under King Sejong’s leadership. One major consideration was the settlement of Jurchens who had been residing among northern communities. The regulation of marriage partners during this period should be understood within this broader context. Amid concerns that Jurchens, whose ties to tribal chieftains had weakened, might defect, Joseon implemented intermarriage regulations to sustain relations with them. In practice, Joseon actively pursued the settlement of Jurchens, diverging from the formal principle at the time that “those who come should be welcomed, but those who leave should not be restrained.”

Chinese language education during the Joseon Dynasty developed into a relatively comprehensive system encompassing educational institutions, administrative oversight, teaching methodologies, interpreter training, and textbook compilation. Accordingly, research on Chinese language training in this period provides not only a comprehensive under standing of its historical practices but also valuable reference materials for modern foreign language education. This study examines the operations and educational practices of the Sa-yeok-won (司譯院), a government bureau during the Joseon Dynasty, with particular attention to student recruitment, instructional methods, and measures for managing interpreters. Students at the institution began their training at a young age and were taught through real-world immersion. They were required to master accurate Chinese pronunciation under strict language policies that banned the use of Korean. To further strengthen their speaking abilities, the U-eo-cheong (偶語廳), a specialized conversation course, was the bureau cultivated cultural learning—including Confucian studies and history—aimed at developing the cultural competence of diplomatic interpreters. Management practices for students and interpreters included attendance monitoring (wonjeom system), cumulative grading, and a structured reward-and-penalty framework. Over its 500-year history, the Sa-yeok-won trained a steady stream of interpreters and played a vital role in promoting diplomatic and cultural exchanges between Joseon and China. The bureau’s strategies present striking parallels with modern foreign language education, offering valuable reference materials for future educational development.