KJCKorea
Journal Central

The concept of Zomia has become an influential theoretical framework in the study of the relationship between highland and lowland regions in mainland Southeast Asia. This theory interprets highland communities as societies actively evading the control of central states. However, much of the current discussion of Zomia is still based on historical and ethnographic data from later periods, while archaeological evidence for prehistoric and early historical periods remains limited. This paper approaches that debate through the case of the Northwest Việt Nam during the Đông Sơn period (8th-1st centuries BCE). Based on the synthesis and analysis of the spatial distribution of sites, types of high-grade bronze artifacts, and their functions, the study shows that the Northwest Việt Nam did not operate as an isolated, evasive space, but actively participated in inter-regional exchange networks connecting the Red River Delta and Yunnan. However, the degree and form of this participation are not uniform across river valley regions, reflecting the selective integration of mountain communities. These results suggest that, within the context of Đông Sơn period, Zomia should be understood as a model that is more flexible over time and space rather than a uniform model for the entire mainland Southeast Asia.

This article examines the role of Confucian education in the Nguyễn dynasty’s state-building strategy in the Northern Highlands of Vietnam in the nineteenth century. By analyzing official historical records and statistical data on the civil service examination system, this study challenges James C. Scott’s “Zomia” theory of highland isolation and statelessness as it proposes a model of integrative negotiation which emphasizes connectivity, drawing on the analytical approach of Oscar Salemink. The study identifies a fundamental shift from the “indirect management” policy during King Gia Long’s reign to “civilizing” strategy under Minh Mệnh, in which education was used as a soft-power tool to establish symbolic sovereignty. Through the establishment of a system of educational officials, construction of Confucian temples and schools, along with revision of examination regulations in favor of mountainous regions, the Nguyễn dynasty forged a link between the central government and the local administration. Although examination results remained modest, the emergence of local intellectuals and “lưu quan” (Kinh officials assigned to the highlands) affirms that the Northern Highland was an active space of interaction, inseparable from the historical and cultural currents of a unified nation.