2011, Vol., No.101

馮時 | 2011, (101) | pp.1~43 | number of Cited : 4

A Study on Silla's Advancement into the Northeastern Area and on the Region from which Isabu Sailed to Conquer Usanguk

Kim Chang Kyum | 2011, (101) | pp.45~80 | number of Cited : 21

Content Analysis and Meaning of Odaesan Records in 『Samgukyusa』 (I) - Centering on Mañjuśri Faith of Jajang -

Jungseop Youm | 2011, (101) | pp.81~125 | number of Cited : 17

A Study on Mt. Kumgang Travel of Foreign Envoys' and Evils in Early Joseon Dynasty

Lee Sang Kyun | 2011, (101) | pp.127~169 | number of Cited : 12

Mt. Kumgang was called as human's clean land(淨土) with graceful scenic places and buddhist world(佛世界) in 『Hwaeomgyeong(華嚴經)』 . Travelers have never stopped visiting the mountain since Koryo Dynasty. Even after Joseon dynasty came, this mountain has been a representative tourist attraction. Therefore, enjoys who came from Ming dynasty and Japan wanted to visit Mt. Kumgang. During the early Joseon dynasty, 17 envoys from Ming and one envoy from Japan visited this Mt. Kumgang as you can recognize in 『Annals of the Joseon Dynasty(朝鮮王朝實錄)』 . Among 17 envoys from Ming, 15 people came from eunuch(宦官) and among 15 people, total 9 envoys were chosen to visit Joseon and they were Hwajas(火者). In case of Japanese, a lot of envoys asked visiting Mt. Kumgang but the government of Joseon dynasty hardly made permissions for them to visit due to the leak of national information. Envoys tried to visit Mt. Kumgang as they came to Joseon. Typically, those envoys asked visiting this mountain for a Buddhist service(禮佛) which was individual's religious faith. The period they traveled the mountain was more of less of 10 days. At that moment, 6 days were spent for going tomountain from the capital(都城) and the actual staying period in the mountain was 2 or 3 days. Traveling the Mt. Kumgang was one of their personal askings and Joseon Hwajas' favors were the largest. Envoys' traveling Mt. Kumgang led lots of side effects such as huge expensive costs. Before envoys leave for traveling, people were asked to deal with everything as applying the rules of law(事目). All the documents from government office that existed in the middle of the street that envoys were passing and trail works(事跡) were supposed to be hidden and buildings'signboards had to be pulled down. These kinds of orders from the government were because the officers were worried about loss of national prestige in case the foreign envoys watch harming Joseon's traditional customs or claiming official policies. Moreover, that was also because to provide envoys' impractical asking about wonderfully great materials. Envoys' traveling the Mt. Kumgang was very complicated and cumbersome from the preparation. Joseon officials threw a party and gave some compensative gifts for foreign envoys when they were about to leave. The officials were made as Jeopbansa (接伴使) and soldiers had to gollow to protect(扈從). It was a precedent(慣例)for foreign envoys that the King sent the officials and made them to entertain envoys and care itinerary(旅程). After the envoys finished traveling from the mountain, the officials gave compensatory gifts just like the envoys left and the King or the officials had to go middle of the road(中路) personally and gave a party for them. While the party was being held, farmers could be damaged because of hunting. Traveling for envoys' the biggest damage was an expensive cost. When the envoys visited the mountain, many entourages had to follow them and formal party's expense for state guests(國賓) was unbelievably expensive. The government did not assign the charges for envoys so people in countryside had to meet the demand for each time. There were not so many people in Gangwon-do where the Mt. Kumgang is placed and stored grains were not that much. At that time, the government had to welcome envoys with war chest(軍資) and had run out of provisions during the bad year. With this moment and reason, all the expenses for travel made the Gangwon-do's financial affairs bad. The local residents had to assist the event, either. This practice(慣行) that the local residents had to assist the event for main officials or envoys has been continued since Goryo dynasty. The local residents assisted those events frequently, as a result, their actual ordinary lives got damaged as they lost the opportunity for farming. For this reason, residents lamented their local mountain. Even during the Joseon dynasty, the preparation to entertain envoys was absolutely the each countryside's work. This has been since Goryo dynasty like that. As a result of this, the traveling of Mt. Kumgang for envoys was all about foreign envoys' personal favors, not about benefits for own Joseon. Moreover,it caused a waste and damage of national administration. The financial affair became worse and because of the frequent entertain, the local residents became poorer.

A Comparison of Ledger‘s account between Korean Practices and Italian Pigeonholes Theory

전성호 | 2011, (101) | pp.171~204 | number of Cited : 7

Why we need to consider East Asian's Civilisation for capitalistic rationality? Max Weber regarded the double entry bookkeeping as leading to rationality and the distinguishing peculiarity of Western culture, which means there was no substantive rationality, like capitalism in East Asia, only found in many Western societies. Double-entry used in attempts to account for the Rise of the West and it is closely linked to the concepts of rationality. Some accounting historians in Korea had challenged against Weber's association of Western rationality with the advent of capitalism. They claimed traditionally Korean book-keeping system as a double-entry system, preceding Italy by two centuries, but the evidence does not altogether warrant such a claim until now. Jack Goody in his book "The East in the West" pointed out European developments in book-keeping are clearly linked to the world history of trade,especially between Mediterranean in Europe and Yellow sea in East Asia. In early medieval period, Venice was the main city for the trade between East and West. Venice took the foreign exchange in gold and silver to buy the luxury goods of the East. the Franciscans established a base at Quanzhou(Zaitun),opposite Taiwan, which during the later Tang, for Korea unified Silla Dysnasty became the world largest harbour, where already in 1326 Genoses merchants were not an uncommon sight. Nestorian Christians and Persian merchants plied silk road to Silla Korea and Tang China. The evidence of international merchants activities is enshrined in the Shosho-in treasures of Nara(正倉院). The great achievement of the Italian medieval merchants, roughly between 1250 and 1400, was to fuse all these heterogeneous elements into an integrated system of classification in which the pigeonholes were called accounts and which rested on the principle of dual entries for all transaction, but it is sometimes said that the basic principles of bookkeeping have not changed since the origin of double-entry in the middle ages. However Italian practical evidence for the accounting entry in medieval times did show no heading, and not highly abbreviated tabulation of the value involved. Only early in the seventeenth Century occurred certain modifications in the form of the ledger account which suggest that there was a tendency for account evolution to move in the direction of a more simplified and abbreviated arrangement. Early in the eighteenth century minor changes appeared in the account headings. The Account title was dropped from the heading of the credit folio and the phrase "per contra" took its place. At the same time the words "debit" and "credit" were abbreviated as "Dr". "Cr", these abbreviations standing at the head of the respective folio. By the middle of the nineteenth century both sides of the account were shown upon a single page and a single title. The situation of accounting history for Korea relatively has been underdeveloped. This paper examines a newly re-discovered cache of merchant accounts preserved in North Korea together with other records preserved in South Korea. Korean practical evidences for accounting provided perfectly articulated and highly abbreviated tabulation accounting with pigeonholes symbol set which were also recorded by in the city of Kaesŏng merchants, and they date in eighteenth century. This paper has three concerns. A first concern is the great similarity of the form of the record and the wording of entry between Korea and Italy, for creating DEB which is the same remark of Genoa, Florence and Venice in the Mediterranean Sea applied to Kaesŏng and Zaitun in the Yellow sea. A secondary concern is to compare the practical organization of the Korean accounts to the model presented by Lucas Pacioli, and thereby clarify the Korean accounts for comparative purposes. A third concern is to clarify the significance of the existence of this system. The major conclusion of this paper is that these Korean accounts on the ledger from seventh century to nineteenth century were in a general way much alike. Fortunately, the newly re-discovered merchant documents reveal a perfectly integrated method that accords with Italian pigeonholes theory.

The Activities of Preventive Measures against Cholera in 1919‧20 in Colonial Korea

Baek Seon Lye | 2011, (101) | pp.205~240 | number of Cited : 27

This study focuses on how preventive measures against cholera epidemic by the authorities was conducted and examines how Koreans reacted to them. My aim is to expose various features found between the colonizer and the colonized. Cholera, which had spread to Chosŏn, infected 16,915 people (the deads 11,533) in 1919, 24,229 people (the deads 13,568) in 1920. When cholera broke out near the Chosŏn, the authorities started all sort of quarantine. After cholera was brought into the Chosŏn, the authorities made the greater efforts to search for cases of infectious disease. And Preventive injections against cholera were enforced in all parts of Chosŏn. People were imposed of constraints by the quarantine. People was not able to move freely in and out of country. Several limits and controls were followed in the place where cases were found, and it infiltrated deep into there every day life. The majority of Koreans had fully depended on existing norms and old customs about infectious disease. It made Koreans to conflict frequently with the authorities. As a result, the policemen's attitude was increasingly heavy-handed, and Koreans resisted it. Most of Koreans were reluctant to be hospitalized in the isolation hospitals because of the poor medical treatment, and tried to build their own isolation hospitals. And the local notables and youths organized prevention of epidemic associations. They were welcomed by local people and met with better results more than the authorities. Cholera was a terror and a common enemy to both Korean and Japanese. Therefore, everyone who lived in Chosŏn had the same purpose, the eradication of cholera. The authorities suffered frequent conflicts with Koreans, although they started all sort of preventive measures against cholera. On the one hand Koreans struggled against the prevention of epidemics by the authorities, they tried to organize their own associations, and establish the private isolation hospitals, on the other hand. Preventive measures against cholera by the authorities and Korean's reactions in 1919 and 1920 showed that the authorities and people affected each other. This point exposed the other side of colonial rule that was difficult to explain through one-sided rule by the colonizer and resistance or adaptation by the colonized.

KJCKorea
Journal Central

The Review of Korean History 2023 KCI Impact Factor : 1.02

2011, Vol., No.101