This study is an attempt to analyze development and meaning of radio broadcasting in terms of Manchukuo‘s formation of nation-state and enforcement of imperial regime. In 20th century, radio has contributed in creating nationhood under state's control. Radio was popular also in Manchukuo as a way to create 'Manchurian' who had contradictory identities as a submember of Japan empire and citizen of independent country. Therefore, radio industry in Manchukuo is an important example of state and empire's logic penetrating into people's daily lives and artificially constructing national identity.
History of propaganda in Manchukuo starts with information gathering and publicizing with the purpose of stabilizing domination over railway and surrounding areas in times of South Manchuria Railway Corporation. Manchukuo,an independent state established in 1932, focused on international and domestic propaganda activities in order to eliminate impression of puppet state and to reconfirm legitimacy as authentic nation-state. Especially in the Sino-Japanese War period, producing nationhood to support total war became urgent. Manchukuo then took notice of radio in terms of its signal's synchronicity and crossability of border which overcomes regional and class boundaries.
Radio broadcasting in Manchuria began in the Kwantung Leased Territory(關東州), and after Manchukuo was established, the system moved to the capital Xinjing(新京). In 1933, the state-run company, Manchuria Telegram and Telephone Corporation, or MTT, was established and broadcasting industry got into its stride. 100kW output broadcasting station was constructed in Xinjing that could link whole Manchukuo and Kwantung Leased Territory which enabled dual language broadcasting in Chinese, etc. and Japanese. Based on these technological developments and Manchukuo government's guidance, MTT began creating and transmitting programs while supplying receivers.
Receivers should be provided in order for the radios to operate as instrument of propaganda. MTT enthusiastically supplied receivers, developing MTT-Type Receiver and selling it by themselves at a reasonable price, hoping to increase listening population. MTT's radio supplying project was a kind of 'nation-building‘project that indicated state's boundary and enhanced unity among state members.
The main target of radio supplying project was Chinese citizens which made up most of the population. The broadcasters showed deep interest in Chinese citizens because they had the most (potential) listeners and were supposed to be the leading force of 'Manchurian Culture'. 'Manchurian Culture' was an unique mass culture that Manchukuo needed for its identity as an independent state. It should straddle various races that make up Manchukuo but should also be different from Japanese or Chinese culture. MTT focused on producing Chinese programs and devised a multi-lingual broadcasting policy to use Russian, Korean etc. in each region in order to realize 'Manchurian Culture' through radio wave.
MTT also tried to seek 'something Manchurian' that constitute 'Manchurian Culture' through traditional music recording project. However it was difficult to create independent culture without threatening Japanese culture, the culture of leading group, in Manchukuo which is the multi-racial country. Rather, seeking 'Manchurian Culture' became a good example of independent country Manchukuo's dilemma that exists within imperial regime.
While radio supplying project was inwardly a 'nation-building' project, bilateral project between colonies such as Korea, Taiwan, and puppet governments in North China was outwardly a 'empire-building' project since it tries to express dynamics of the imperialism through hearing. MTTs broadcasting exchange industry had two issues; to sensually make listeners aware of empire Japan's territory,and to reconfirm Japan(ese) as leading race of Imperial Japan. Before 1941, there were active exchange of broadcast among Japan, North China and Korea. The regular exchanged-programs were mostly lecture programs but temporary exchanged-programs often consist of entertainment programs. Also, while radio supplying project was emphasized in terms of 'seeking of Manchurian Culture', broadcasting exchange industry emphasized interaction with governments in North China.
After 1941 when Aisa-Pacific War was intensified, 'Greater East Asian Broadcasting Sphere(大東亞放送圈)', the network which connects all parts of Imperial Japan, was designed. It includes colonies and South Pacific Mandate based on linkage among Japan-Manchuria-North China, focusing on exchanging programs as well as technological cooperation under control of Mainland Japan.
MTT participated in East Asian Electric Communication Cousil(東亞電氣通信協議會) and East Asian Broadcating Exchanges(東亞交換放送) led by NHK(日本放送協會) as a member of 'Greater East Asian Broadcasting Sphere'. East Asian Broadcating Exchanges, which actively took place after the attack of Pearl Harbor, propagandizes each regions linkage and cooperation while confirming Japan's existence at the top of the network. Though its purpose wasn't realized due to time and technological limits, 'Greater East Asian Broadcasting Sphere' is an fulfilled image of 'East Asian New Order(東亞新秩序)' in terms of radio wave.
In view of the results, radio broadcasting in Manchukuo was not fully productive in both inward supplying project and outward exchange project till the defeat of Asia Pacific War. However, if we consider potential of radio broadcasting in Manchukuo, which is multi-racial state as well as the microcosm of Imperial Japan, we could get a sense of contradiction of nation-state and empire in the first half of 20th Century, through interaction among the sender(MTT),audience and the state in radio broadcasting in Manchukuo.