2024, Vol.30, No.4

Ezekiel’s Concept of the “Remnant”: The Identity Background of the Exile-Return Community

Nuri Kim | 2024, 30(4) | pp.9~47 | number of Cited : 0

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The Meaning of rûaḥ in the Old Testament and the Importance of the Presence of God’s rûaḥ

Do-hyung Kim | 2024, 30(4) | pp.48~72 | number of Cited : 0

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A Theological Analysis of Salvation Proclamation in the Book of Ezekiel through the Comparison of Papyrus 967 and the Masoretic Text(MT): Focusing on the Role of the Spirit of God(rûaḥ)

Joo-Hyun Kim | 2024, 30(4) | pp.73~103 | number of Cited : 0

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Humans Created in the ”Image of God” in Genesis 1 and the Instructions for Merikare in Ancient Egypt

Jun Kim | 2024, 30(4) | pp.104~140 | number of Cited : 0

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This study compares Genesis 1 with the instruction for Merikare in Egypt, which records the creation of man in the “image of god” approximately 1,500 years earlier. The purpose of this study is to understand the meaning of man being created in the “image of God(god)” as expressed in the two texts and the historical background that gave rise to this concept. The instruction for Merikare and Genesis 1 are important texts that apply the expression of man being created in the image of God, which was previously used only for certain figures such as kings in the ancient Near East, to all people. At the same time, these two texts are unusual texts because this expression is used only in the instruction for Merikare in Egypt, and only in the pre-history of Genesis, including Genesis 1, and then not again in the Old Testament. The emergence of this expression can be understood in the historical and religious context of the time when the two texts were written. The Instruction for Mericare is set in a chaotic period when the solid Old Kingdom of Egypt collapsed and a new order had to be reconstructed amid competition among local rulers. The Instruction for Merikare advises that the king should consider local power and people important and conduct prudent politics during this chaotic time. As such, the basis for the king’s respect for people is that all people are created in the image of god and are precious beings who receive god’s good care. However, the teaching of Mericare does not claim that all humans are equal or divine. God created kings more specially. Since the Instruction for Merikare focuses on the stability of the kingdom’s rule, it does not mention the role of humans created in the image of god in the created world. Genesis 1 is understood to have been edited by the priestly school during the exile or early post-exile period. This was a time of chaos when traditional religious values and order collapsed, the exiles’ faith in Yahweh weakened in the face of the great Babylonian religion and society, and they questioned the value of their own existence. The priestly school reconstructs the values of Israel’s religion and people through Genesis 1, which presents the Almighty God who created heaven and earth, God who formulates and carries out a systematic and comprehensive plan, and roles of people created in God’s image. Genesis 1 does not mention differences in status or power among people. All people are equal and dignified. Genesis 1 places people at the zenith of the creation process and then portrays them as beings who are entrusted with the authority and responsibility to rule over all living creatures and the earth as God’s representatives. P’s vision portrays all people created in God’s image as noble beings who will serve as kingly priests entrusted by God. P invites the Israelites, whose faith in Yahweh had been weakened through the experience of the Babylonian exile, to strengthen their faith in the Almighty God, and to move toward the goal of completing the vision of creation by following the divine commandments that God had entrusted to humans.

A Study on the Convergence of the Jacob Tradition and the Mosaic Tradition in the Book of Hosea: Focusing on the Use of Divine Names in Hosea 12

Kyung-Wook Byun | 2024, 30(4) | pp.141~176 | number of Cited : 0

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This study examines how the Jacob tradition and the Mosaic tradition are quoted in the chapter 12 of the Book of Hosea in terms of the use of the divine names to create the meaning at a historical, literary, and canonical level. The chapter 12 criticizes the history and theology of Israel and at the same time conveyed a message of ‘converging’ of the two streams. One stream is the ‘El/Elohim’ deity name and the Jacob tradition, which is largely based in northern Israel. The other stream is the divine name ‘YHWH’ and the Mosaic tradition (the exodus tradition, the wilderness tradition). Historically, in the 10th to 8th century BC, religious syncretism occurred in northern Israel due to externally political and economic factors, resulting in returning to the union between the indigenous gods of northern Israel, ‘El/Elohim’ and ‘Baal’. Hosea of the 8th century BC used the strategy of converging ‘YHWH’ and ‘El/Elohim’ to present the restoration of the union between ‘El/Elohim’ of the Jacob tradition and ‘YHWH’ of the Mosaic trandition. From a literary perspective, Hosea chapter 12 shows that the Jacob tradition and the Mosaic tradition originate from the same ‘God’ by the strategy to converge the divine names ‘YHWH’ and ‘El/Elohim’. Chapter 12 of the Book of Hosea depicts the convergence of the two traditions in a comprehensive way through the coincidence of the number of the divine names ‘YHWH’ and ‘Elohim’, the structure of chiasm, and the memory of the Jacob and Mosaic traditions. In terms of the canonical approach in the Twelve Prophets, the book of Hosea is related to Malachi. The number of the divine name ‘YHWH’ is the same as Malachi, and the prophets who were active in the 8th century used the words ‘Israel’ and ‘Jacob’ many times. The reason for its placement was to serve as a reminder and call to the Israelites when introducing the Book of the Twelve. In addition, it was intended to restore trust in the prophets that had fallen during the Persian period at the beginning of the Second Temple era and to secure the legitimacy of the Twelve Prophets themselves. Hosea wanted Israel to truly ‘know the LORD(Hosea 6:3).’ Hosea reminds readers that there is only ‘one’ who is in charge of history inside and outside the combined ‘the Jacob tradition’ and ‘the Mosaic tradition’ and integrates ‘El/Elohim’ into ‘YHWH’ as the divine names.

A Study on the Meaning of the Earthquake in the Book of Amos

Sang-Won Lee | 2024, 30(4) | pp.177~203 | number of Cited : 0

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The purpose of this article is to explain the literary function and the theological meaning of the earthquake-motif found in the title (1:1), the prophecy of doom against northern Israel (2:6-16), and the fifth vision (9:1-4) in the oldest book of Amos. For this purpose, first I analyze the three texts which belong to the oldest book of Amos. Next, I explain that an earthquake is stated and prophesied as the judgement of YHWH with the implied fulfillment of the prophecy. The oldest book of Amos was written after the Syro-Ephraimite War in 733-722 BCE by Amos’ disciples who applied and interpreted the original message of Amos in a new historical situation. The book consists of the title (1:1), oracles against the nations (chaps. 1-2). the prophecy of doom against northern Israel (chaps. 3-6), and five visions of Amos (chaps. 7-9), constructing the basic framework of the Book of Amos. In the title (1:1*) of the oldest book of Amos an earthquake is recorded, signifying the period of the ministry of the prophet Amos (“two years before the earthquake”). In the oracle against northern Israel (2:6-8, 13-16) social injustice is charged, and the earthquake with the war is predicted. And in the fifth vision (9:1-4) the fulfillment of the prophecy about the earthquake is pronounced. In contrast with the earthquake, in this last vision, the prophecy about the war becomes more devastating as a war of annihilation. The motif of earthquake plays a major role in the composition of the oldest book of Amos and confirms the authenticity of the prophecy about the annihilation in the last vision. Furthermore, through the fulfillment of the prophecy about the earthquake, the prophecy of Amos which was predicted two years before the earthquake is confirmed as God’s words. And the warning of annihilation against northern Israel where social injustice prevailed thus becomes the authentic word of YHWH.

Is the Woman Created with the Rib of Man?

Syn-Woong Lee | 2024, 30(4) | pp.204~253 | number of Cited : 0

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This study is about rethinking the Hebrew word “tzela”. Because the translation of the Hebrew word “tzela” into ribs further intensifies the gender conflict. For this purpose, this paper exegetically analyzes the creation of human beings in Genesis 1 and the creation of woman in Genesis 2 and proposes a new understanding and new translation. From around the second century BC, Judaism, which recorded and preserved the OT, was the first to think about how to translate “tzela” in Genesis Chapter 2. Reformers, in particular, knew the “side” as the original meaning of “tzela”, but could not escape the androcentric interpretation and used the translation “rib”. Unfortunately, in the process of being translated from Hebrew to another language, the Hebrew word “tzela” was translated into ribs, resulting in the blind belief that women were created as men’s “ribs” in Christianity. With the transmission of Christianity to Korea, this translation is combined with the patriarchal Confucian culture of Joseon and the androcentric atmosphere of the Japanese Colonial Period, worsening the problem of gender conflict as the theological basis for misogyny and discrimination. However, to this day, this translation has not been reevaluated within Christianity. To resolve this problematic situation, this research analyzed the creation story of the ancient Near East, revealed that “the creation of women through ribs” began with the ancient Sumerian creation myth, and analyzed the uniqueness of the latter compared to the Genesis creation story. After that, after clarifying that the “tzelem” of human creation in Genesis chapter 1 and the “tzela” of female creation in Genesis chapter 2 are linguistically related, it is suggested that Hebrew “tzela” be tranlstated into “form” or “shape”, rather than “rib” or “side”. Because man and woman have already been created in the same "appearance" in the human creation from Genesis chapter 1, the female creation of Chapter 2 should logically be created in the appearance of a man, not a man's rib. Another reason to translate “tzela” into “outward appearance” is that the original meaning of Hebrew “ezer knegdo”, which translates to “corresponding helper”, is “help from the other side facing the mirror”, so the creation of a woman is justified only when a man has the same “outward appearance” as looking into the mirror. As a result, it is revealed that the creation of women is due to the principle of creation presented in Genesis chapter 1, “tohu and bohu”(Whbow" Whto). In addition, it is argued that the difference between men and women is not a difference in material or essence, but a distinction between external clunkiness and delicacy, through the different verbs used in the creation of men and women with the same appearance. After all, this study reveals that women are not subordinated and discriminatory to men at all, but that women and men are essentially equal and equal cooperative beings. Finally, based on these conclusions, this study urges the social responsibility of Korean Christianity, which is proud to be a national religion.

A Study of the Traditions of Melchizedek in the Dead Sea Scrolls

Yoon-Kyung Lee | 2024, 30(4) | pp.254~281 | number of Cited : 0

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This paper examines the tradition of Melchizedek from his initial historical appearance in the Old Testament to his depiction in the Qumran Scrolls and the New Testament. In Genesis 14, Melchizedek is introduced as the historical king and priest of Salem who blesses Abram after a victorious battle. This brief yet significant encounter presents Melchizedek as a figure connected to both royalty and priesthood, titles that hold theological significance in later interpretations. By the time we reach Psalm 110, Melchizedek has transformed from a historical figure into a symbolic representation of King David, portrayed as a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek, sitting at God’s right hand. The New Testament, particularly in the Epistle to the Hebrews, elevates this transformation further by depicting Melchizedek as a typology of Christ, whose eternal priesthood supersedes that of the Levitical order. The Qumran Scrolls play a crucial role in bridging the Old and New Testament perceptions of Melchizedek. Documents such as the Genesis Apocryphon, Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, and 11QMelchizedek present Melchizedek in a more eschatological and celestial context. In these texts, Melchizedek takes on a role beyond that of a historical king and priest; he is portrayed as a heavenly figure, one who presides over divine judgment and is associated with the ultimate redemption of God’s people in the eschaton. In particular, 11QMelchizedek describes him as a messianic figure who will defeat the forces of evil, represented by Belial, and bring about the year of God's favor, thus fulfilling an essential role in the apocalyptic expectations of the Qumran community. This study traces the development of the Melchizedek tradition through various phases: from his depiction as a historical figure in Genesis, to a symbolic king-priest in the Psalms, and finally to a messianic and priestly figure in the New Testament and Second Temple Jewish texts. By examining these texts, the paper demonstrates how the understanding of Melchizedek evolved over time, particularly in relation to the concept of eternal priesthood and eschatological salvation, and how these developments influenced early Christian theology, particularly in the understanding of Christ’s priesthood. The research highlights the significance of Melchizedek in the theological and eschatological imagination of both Jewish and Christian traditions, underscoring his role as a bridge between the two Testaments and as a central figure in discussions about messianism and divine intervention in the history of salvation.

Correlation between text and image about hebel and death

Eun-Ae Lee | 2024, 30(4) | pp.282~310 | number of Cited : 0

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Death can be said to be the basis for the declaration in Ecclesiastes that ‘everything is in vain’. Here, ‘all’ is not a universal category, but refers to the realities of the world that humans have to face, such as joy, human activity, wisdom, work, and wealth, all of which are in vain. This is because death is an inevitable thing that comes to everyone, and both the wise and the foolish will die, and it is the same for both humans and animals. In the end, it can be said that death confirms the hebel of life, that is, its futility, irrationality, and worthlessness. The understanding of death in Ecclesiastes can be summarized as the inevitability and universality of death. Ecclesiastes shows that not only are humans inevitably mortal, but that all humans are equal in the face of the reality of death(Eccles. 9:2-3). If chapter 8 of Ecclesiastes claims that compensation theology and causal retribution, which are universal principles of wisdom literature, do not apply to everything in the world, then chapter 9 of Ecclesiastes asserts that there is still fairness in the world, and that everyone is equal in the face of death by saying that everyone ultimately returns to death. The inevitability and universality of death, which appear as the basis of ‘hebel’ (vanity) in Ecclesiastes, were also accepted and applied to the Macabre phenomenon of death in the turbulent European society of the late Middle Ages. The influence of Ecclesiastes’ hebel on the Macabre of death can be said to be a visual expression of the original teaching of Ecclesiastes to be grateful and enjoy the portion of life given before death. In the ‘Macabre of Death’, death was now personified and combined with images, and it can be seen that it spread, changed, and developed throughout Europe. In addition, the ‘Dance of Death’, which represented the concept of the Macabre in the late Middle Ages, accompanied by texts on the inevitability and equality of death, played a role in religiously and socially awakening the inevitability and fairness of death against the secularization of individuals and society. This can be seen as a criticism of the status order of the time through the equality of death that comes to everyone while realizing that humans are beings who cannot help but die. In particular, the understanding of death in this period is closely related to the understanding of life that appears in the texts of the Hebrew Bible, especially in the Book of Ecclesiastes, which was written relatively later. The medium of cultural memory, which has a formal framework such as text and pictures, allows members of the community to share and empathize with the past beyond the individual level, because unlike historical records, it acts as a comprehensive medium of empathy that includes subjectivity and emotion.

An Examination of the Origins of Zion Theology

Joon-Hyuk Lee | 2024, 30(4) | pp.311~332 | number of Cited : 0

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This study examines four major theories on the origins of Zion theology and explores how Zion theology developed and evolved over time. By analyzing the origins of Zion theology from a diachronic perspective, the study aims to assess the validity and limitations of each theory. The study is structured around four main theories. First, the Jebusite origin theory suggests that a tradition of Zion’s inviolability existed among the Jebusites prior to the conquest of Jerusalem, which David subsequently integrated into Israelite religion. This theory supports the idea that Zion was regarded as a religious center before David and later established as a political center. Second, the Isaiah origin theory argues that the failure of Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem in 701 BCE established Zion as a sacred site under divine protection. This theory posits that Zion theology developed as a symbol of divine protection against external threats to Israel. Third, the Shiloh-Ark origin theory views David's transfer of the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem as pivotal to the formation of Zion theology. As the Ark was brought to Jerusalem, Zion became a symbol of God’s presence and protection, thereby reinforcing its role as a religious center. Lastly, the David-Solomon origin theory attributes the establishment of Zion theology to David's conquest of Jerusalem and Solomon's construction of the Temple, solidifying Zion as both the political capital and religious center of Israel. The study concludes that the David-Solomon origin theory offers the most compelling explanation for the origins of Zion theology. During the reigns of David and Solomon, Zion theology became a central element in the political and theological identity of Israel. This tradition, which developed into a complex ideology over subsequent historical events, emphasizes the importance of a diachronic approach, showing that Zion theology is a multilayered tradition shaped and reinterpreted across various periods and events. As such, Zion theology remains an essential topic for understanding the political and religious identity of ancient Israel.

A Comparative Study on Psalms 119 and 145 Focusing on Parallelism

Sung-Kwon Yim | 2024, 30(4) | pp.333~363 | number of Cited : 0

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The Earth Story in the Creation Narratives: Earth Allows Itself Wasted, Resisting Human Injustice

Hyo-Myong Lim | 2024, 30(4) | pp.364~395 | number of Cited : 0

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Olfactory Sense as the Best Means of Judgment: Focusing on the Description of Olfactory Sense in the Hebrew Bible

Dae-jun Jeong | 2024, 30(4) | pp.396~430 | number of Cited : 0

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A Study on the Inclusivity of Gentiles from a Universalist Perspective in the Pentateuch

Jong-Won Choi | 2024, 30(4) | pp.431~468 | number of Cited : 0

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This study aims to clarify, from the perspective of the formation history of the Pentateuch, that the inclusiveness of the Israelites toward gentiles plays an important role in the so-called post-P and post-non-P texts concerning the family history cycle of Abraham (Gen. 12-25) using compositional and synchronic methods. The texts concerning the family history cycle of Abraham (Genesis 12-25) emphasize inclusiveness by recognizing Gentiles as a community of brothers centered around Abraham. Lot’s family, the ancestors of Ammon and Moab, was merged with the Terah family along with Abraham’s family history. The purpose of this merger is to express the need to reestablish Israel’s identity after the exile or the Hellenistic expansion of the theology of the post-priestly and non-priestly lineage. The lives of Hagar and Ishmael are based on the theology of the priestly lineage, and God hears the voice of the foreigners’ suffering and sends ‘Malak’ to solve the problem. From a compositional perspective, the mixed texts of post-P and post-non-P are merged, reflecting the efforts to find the identity of the community of Israel since at least the Second Temple period after the exile in the Abrahamic family history. From a synchronic perspective, the ‘Malak’(malak)-text, which had a great influence on its final form, accepted the thinking of the previous era while developing into a new historical perspective, overcoming some of the exclusive nationalism and aiming for universalism. The final composer of the Pentateuch seeks to reorganize the identity issue of the community of faith in Israel as the new era approaches. He overcomes the social issues of the identity of Israel according to the demands of the times, and actively seeks to reinterpret his historical perspective by embracing gentiles as members of the new Israel.

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Korean Journal of Old Testament Studies 2024 KCI Impact Factor : 0.49

2024, Vol.30, No.4