2021, Vol.27, No.3

The Origin of the Violent Levites in Exodus 32:26–29

Jaeyoung Jeon | 2021, 27(3) | pp.10~39 | number of Cited : 1

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This work aims to prove the problematic literary block of Exodus 32:26–29, which describes the Levites’ punishment of the people and consecration, is a late insertion by a Levite scribe or scribal circle. Several features of the present passage support this thesis. In terms of a pentateuchal stratigraphy, the present passage can be dated later than the late Priestly redaction about the Levites in Numbers, namely, almost at the last stage of the formation of the Pentateuch in the mid-/late-Persian period. The passage’s origin and socio-historical context should thus be thought of in that period. The present passage describes the Levites violent executers of Yhwh’s punishment who kill three thousand Israelites without having mercy. Such a violent image of the Levites has probably been originated from the roles of the Levite temple guards (1 Chr 9; 26) in the Second Temple of Jerusalem and their expanded function as religion police in the city (Neh 13:22). Those Levites are described as an armed organization recognized by the Persian authority, which used their force against their own people to protect the moral and ritual purity of the temple and city. Our passage also provides an alternative etiology of the consecrated Levites as a polemical response, especially to the scribal works from priestly circles, such as Numbers 3–4, 16–18 and Ezekiel 44:10–14, that diminish the status of the non-priestly Levites. In our passage, the Levites remove the sin of idolatry caused by Aaron and gain moral superiority over the latter. Some peculiar lexical features of our passage such as “the gate (שער) of the camp” (Exod 32:26–27) and a non-priestly “consecration (מלא יד)” is shared by another pro-Levitical text Chronicles (1 Chr 29:5; 2 Chr 29:31). The strong pro-Levitical stance and conceptual and linguistic affinities to Chronicles indicate a Levitical redaction of the present text.

The spectrum of Israel's election and relations with the nations

Minsu Oh | 2021, 27(3) | pp.40~71 | number of Cited : 1

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A Study of Theology of Ecclesiastes through the final Lesson of the Kohelet (Ecc. 11:9-12:7)

Kyung-Taek Ha | 2021, 27(3) | pp.72~103 | number of Cited : 0

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A New Translation of Some Difficult Passages in the Song of Deborah and Their Historical Background

SEUNG IL KANG | 2021, 27(3) | pp.106~130 | number of Cited : 1

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The oldest songs in the Old Testament are commonly called "ancient Hebrew poetry." These records include the Blessing of Jacob (Gen 49), the Song of the Sea (Exod 15), the Blessing of Moses (Deut 33), the Song of Deborah (Judg 5), the Prophecy of Balaam (Num 24), and the Song of Habakkuk (Hab 3), David's Victory Song (2 Sam 22 = Ps 18), and Psalm 68. These ancient Hebrew poems are likely to contain important information about the history and religion of early Israel. However, as they are old records, the grammatical features of the pre-Classical Hebrew period are attested, and much of the texts has been damaged during the textual transmission, so it is not easy to understand their meaning accurately. This study presents my own translation of verse 2 and 7, which are the most difficult to interpret, in Deborah's songs (Judges 5), and analyzes their historical context. In general, verse 2a has been understood to describe the long hair, but I translated verse 2 through in-depth textual criticism as follows: “When the leaders in Israel took the lead, when the voluntary ones among the soldiers volunteered, bless the Lord!” Also, I translated verse 7 as follows: "The warriors stopped. They stopped in Israel, until you arose, Deborah, until you arose, mother of Israel." Through my new translation, it is possible to know the following facts. Israel was under the control and oppression of the Canaanites in economic trade, and there were no outstanding warriors to fight against the Canaanite forces. In such a situation, a female warrior Deborah appeared and led the war to victory. Therefore, verse 7 functions as a turning point in the whole of Deborah's song. In the future, it is hoped that accurate translation and analysis of ancient Hebrew poems in addition to the Song of Deborah will be done to further deepen our understanding of the history and religion of early Israel.

How to Understand Ḥērem

DONG-HYUK KIM | 2021, 27(3) | pp.131~154 | number of Cited : 2

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A Study of ‘Amos’ Pronouncing the Grace of YHWH - An Exegetical Study on Amos 5:1-17 -

Sang-Won Lee | 2021, 27(3) | pp.155~180 | number of Cited : 3

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The Wisdom of the Book of Proverbs for Ecological Transformation of Inequal Society

Kim Soon Young | 2021, 27(3) | pp.182~215 | number of Cited : 1

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This paper is to explore ecological wisdom in the Book of Proverbs. It aims to find ways to cope with the crises of ecological inequality and to present awakening and alternatives toward ecological transformation. Sociologist Ulrich Beck noted that it is impossible to identify the climate crisis without considering the impact of climate change on social inequality. He also pointed out that the climate crisis deepens inequality between the poor and the rich, the center and the periphery. A clear example of this economic imbalance is growing rapidly with the COVID-19 pandemic. Above all, platform labor, which has changed the existing way of economic activities, is creating an unfair “risk society” by mass-producing more “transparent workers” next to us. Thus this paper is an attempt to respond to this reality in a biblical way. The Book of Proverbs is a repository of wisdom that penetrates the principles of deep natural order and the reality of human life. The discussion is based on Leonardo Boff's view of social ecology and an ecological ethic aimed at balancing the global community, which combines labor, symbiosis, friendship, justice, and solidarity. The paper also considers the “interconnectedness” principle among the six “ecological principles” of the Earth Bible Project and the justice for the Earth. First, the chosen texts serve as an awakening agent to confront and detoxify the indiscriminate marketism principles and inequality of modern society. The texts include the practical dimensions of fair economic activity and participation (Prov. 11:11; 20:10; 20:14), the twisted relationship between hard work and wealth (13:23), and the issue of laziness and poverty (6:6-11). Second, the selected proverbs are suggestions for reflecting on unequal society, ecological justice, the path to ecological transformation. Life is harder on the poor (10:15; 19:7), but the proverbs that emphasize the dignity of the poor and the protection of human rights (14:31; 22:22-23) can serve as guidelines for restoring ecological justice. Finally, Agur's prayer (30:7-9) warns against the greed of humankind, which has led to our ecological crisis. The spirit of wisdom not to seize the weak(2:22) and the prayer of Aghur seem too trivial and fragile, but they are guides for resistance and innovation that control greed. The paradoxical way of life that is satisfied with a simple lifestyle sublimates into religious beauty and becomes the wisdom of symbiosis and communal enjoyment.

Exploring Christian Leadership based on the Hermeneutics of Sociopolitical Glocal-Discourses of the Prophetic Books: Dialogism, Intertextuality, and Intercontextuality

Park Kyung-Sik | 2021, 27(3) | pp.216~247 | number of Cited : 0

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Violence against war: war narratives from a Gender perspective

LeeEunAe | 2021, 27(3) | pp.248~275 | number of Cited : 1

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This paper studied two texts (Judge 4-5: Judge 9) of the war narrative in the Old Testament. It presents a critical view of the war by revealing the violent characteristics and destructive consequences of the war, namely the conflict and confrontation between ethnic, social class, religion and gender. The fact that a woman ended the war by killing the head of the war in a mainly male-centered war can be defined as violence against the war. In the war between Canaan and Israel(Judge 4-5), Jael, the wife of Hebel the Kenite, killed Sisra, the commander of Canaan's army. In the violence of war full of conflict and confrontation, Jael's violence, who lies beyond political, ethnic, and religious distinctions and borders, finally ends the war and the land faces 40 years of peace without war. Also in the war narrative of Chapter 9 of Judge, the intersection of discrimination and violence in the multilayered confrontation can be found. It is both religious and social class and gender confrontation. The victims of the war were men and women who may not belong to Israel and were religiously worshippers of other god, but they were in the middle of the war, slaughtered and in danger of life. When a woman of them killed Abimelech, an illegal and vicious monarch, using one millstone as a weapon, is finally over the violent and threatening war. The study of war narratives in the Old Testament through the framework of various confrontations led to the discovery of various intertwined positions and intersections within the war, including ethnicity, politics, class, religion, and gender. It also asked questions about the form and legitimacy of an other violence against war, and eventually provided an opportunity to find alternatives to how to end the war and bring peace to the land. Through this study, we find God's unexpected salvation and uniqueness on the side of the weak in ways of bringing peace with the uselessness of war.

Harmony of ‘mishpatim’ and ‘debarim’ for the Poor in the Code Covenant: Based on Ex 21:2-23:12

Lee Il Rye | 2021, 27(3) | pp.276~305 | number of Cited : 1

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The special structure of the casuistic law and apodictic law make an important result in the research history of Pentateuch's Code. The existing research especially differentiates apodictic law (debarim) from mishpatim which contains sanction regulations. Moreover the existing research asks whether the apodictic law ‘takes effect as a positive law’. Referring to that, the existing research understand the apodictic law as a law for the exploited, a demand of God and a basic religious rule of the JHWH religion. These observations understand the apodictic law, which mentions the protection for the poor in the Code Covenant as regulations without sanctions. On that basis, the apodictic law has developed from law to ethics and is reduced and defined as social protection norms (soziale Schutzbestimmungen). However, this research points out the limitation of the existing research and understands the social protection norms in the apodictic law as a Meta-Norm. Furthermore, the apodictic law which mentions the protection for the poor in the Covenant Code is determined as the result of an important theological work for the protection for the socially deprived and for the poor in particular. In the 8th century BC after fall of the northern Israel kingdom, Israeli refugees have arisen and regarding this special social problem, the Code Covenant was enacted to insist fairness and take care of the rights of the socially weak. Therefore, the Code Covenant as a case law protects the socially weak as well as the poor in particular through both, the casuistic law which deals with the realm of general secular life and apodictic law which stands in connection with the ritual realm. The structure of the casuistic law and apodictic law can be observed as the harmony of ‘mishpatim’ and ‘debarim’ for the protection of the poor. In order to protect the poor, the Code Covenant was enacted in harmony with the case law which provides judicial sanction regulations and the ‘rule of rules’ policy.

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Korean Journal of Old Testament Studies 2023 KCI Impact Factor : 0.67

2021, Vol.27, No.3